6-25-07, 9:49 am
[See part 2 of this paper by clicking here.]
Prologue
Throughout its history, the region of Darfur has been characterized by waves of migration due to the movement of Arab and African tribes. These waves of migration have significantly influenced Darfur’s history as well as its social norms, traditions and customs. The migrants brought with them new cultural, social, economic and religious currents, some of which were responsible for radical changes in Darfurian society. Darfur is characterized by natural and climatic diversity, and various tribes have settled in different areas. Each tribe had its own chief who assumed the management of the tribe’s affairs independent of any other authority. Tribal customs were thus the term of reference that governed relations between the various tribes in Darfur.
The region of Darfur was already well known in ancient times. A number of pharaohs visited the area, and the Romans attempted to subjugate Darfur in order to exploit its natural and commercial resources. The famous 40-Day Road linked Darfur with the the Egyptian governorate of Asute, and merchants and explorers from across the world visited Darfur, since it was one of the most important stopping places on the African trade route.
As an independent entity, Darfur has been under the rule of various kingdoms and sultanates, usually named after the dominant tribe, for example the Al Dajo sultanate (between the 12th and 13th century AD) and the Al Tungor sultanate (between the end of the 13th century and the first half of the 15th century AD). In 1445, Sultan Suleiman Solong established an Islamic state in Darfur that lasted as an independent sultanate until 1874, when it was conquered by Turkish-Egyptian colonizers who invaded Sudan in 1821. Under this new regime, Darfur became part of Sudan up until the Mahdist era. However, after the collapse of the Mahdist regime following its defeat resisting the British invasion at the battle of Karari in 1899, Darfur again became an independent entity with external diplomatic representation and was a member of the League of Nations until 1922. However, because of the support given by Sultan Ali Dinar to Turkey in its fight against the Allies during WW I, Britain invaded Darfur and subjugated it, so that it became, once again, a part of Sudan in 1916.
The area of Darfur covers approximately 500,000 square kilometers. Thus it is about the size of Iraq or the state of California and equivalent to the territories of France, Holland and Portugal combined. When Sudan became independent in 1956, Darfur was at first governed as a single administrative unit known as Darfur Province. However, following its seizure of power on June 30, 1989, the National Islamic Front regime divided Darfur into three States: North Darfur, South Darfur, and West Darfur. Al Fashir (the capital of North Darfur), Nyala (the capital of South Darfur) and Al Ginena (the capital of West Darfur) are the largest towns, along with Zalingi, Al Dieen, Buram, and a few others.
Darfur has vast borders with Libya, Chad and the Central Africa Republic. Tribal interactions along these vast borders have exposed Darfur to the ongoing conflicts in the region. The victors in these conflicts often stage their military advances from the territory of Darfur, while the defeated retreat into Darfur to regroup for renewed attacks. Added to this, Darfur must shoulder the burden of the central government’s fluctuations in foreign policy towards its neighbors.
The population of Darfur is about 6 million, representing a diverse group of about 100 different tribes, some of whom are Arab, others African in origin. The African tribes include Al Fur, Al Zagawa, Al Masleet, Al Berti, Al Tama, Al Falata, etc., while the Arab tribes include Al Rizegat, Al Ta'yshaa, Al Habania, Beni Helba, Al Misiriah, Al Ma'liah, al Salamat, etc. The origin of the name Darfur can be traced to the African tribe of Al
Fur, which is the largest and most widely known in the region. The word Darfur means: The Home of Al Fur.
Although all Darfurians are Muslims, they speak different local languages besides Arabic. Due to the nature of its problems and its racial and cultural diversity, Darfur has been seen as a microcosm of the African continent.
Darfur is renowned for being the world’s biggest producer and exporter of gum arabic (the chief ingredient of chewing gum), and it is justly famous for its livestock, but it is important to note that huge reserves of oil and minerals (such as uranium) exist in Darfur.
The View of the Communist Party of Sudan on the Causes of the Conflict in Darfur
The conflict in Darfur is decades older than the date of its recognition by the media and the international community. This conflict is considered by the Communist Party of Sudan to be but one manifestation of the more general Sudanese crisis which began with the country’s independence in 1957 and continues to this day. According to our perception, the main causes of this conflict can be grouped in two categories:
1) The historical roots of the conflict.
2) The role played by the various political regimes that have successively governed Sudan, which has resulted in the eventual escalation of the crisis to the point where it has been transformed into an international humanitarian tragedy, a tragedy largely due to the atrocities committed by the Islamic Front regime, which took power in Sudan on June 30, 1989.
Historical roots of the conflict:
The conflict in Darfur has a traditional, tribal nature that results from the dependence of all the tribes involved on diminishing natural resources, along with the concomitant use of those resources by both nomads and farmers. In these terms, the conflict in Darfur is as old as the presence of these tribes and their coexistence together. It is clear that the Darfur tribes themselves have not lacked the awareness and wisdom to solve these conflicts. In the period from 1957 until today, more than 20 tribal conferences have been convened in Darfur. These conferences have summarized the main solutions to the problems faced in following way:
(a) Respect for the historical rights of each tribe regarding their Hawakeers [1];
(b) Agreement on establishing the movement routes of the tribes (with some routes west of Mount Jabal Marra and others to the east of the mountain), along with precise stipulations regarding the fixed natural landmarks that determine each migration route;
(c) Precision in the timing of such movements;
(d) Respect for and adherence to tribal norms in resolving intertribal conflicts, as well as for the traditions of hosting or providing safe havens for other tribes.
The participants in these conferences have always made sound and practical recommendations, but the recommendations remain on paper only, without implementation by either the central or local authorities. Furthermore, under the present regime, such conferences are have been transformed into political and public relations shows targeted at the media. However, if the authorities had implemented only a part of these recommendations, the political, social and security situation in Darfur would not have deteriorated to the current level.
Despite the almost total news blackout and the tight control of information imposed by the National Islamic Front (NIF) government since taking power, there have always been stark warnings in the media about the tribal conflicts in Darfur. For years Sudanese newspapers have been covering the killings, the burning of villages, and the theft of cattle and property in Darfur. But what the newspapers have not been able to publish under the current regime have been the most extreme and violent of these crimes, the ones committed by the pro-government militias. These militia attacks have resulted in ever increasing numbers of victims, combined with the use of highly advanced artillery by the government army, mass rapes, etc.
The True Nature of the Conflict
It has long been clear that the conflict in Darfur is not simply one between Arab tribes and African tribes (Arab vs. Zurga)[2]. Rather, it is very evident that in Darfur Arabs are fighting Arabs and Zurga are fighting Zurga, and that no tribe or ethnic group is safe from this dangerous situation.
Still, it must be stated that the tribal conflicts in Sudan have now outreached their traditional nature and form, and have changed from being conflicts about diminishing natural resources into manifestations of the natural aspirations of the Darfurian tribes for real participation in governmental power and administration, in political and economic decision-making, and a share in the region’s natural wealth, since it is undeniable that the tribes in Darfur live in a major wealth-producing area, particularly in terms of its major reserves of oil and minerals.
The role of successive governments in escalating the crisis
Despite its special geographical characteristics, the Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) regards the crisis in Darfur as an extension of the more general national crisis that has existed in Sudan since independence. This general crisis is a direct result of the misguided and abusive policies pursued by successive governments for over five decades. Each of these governments has focused only on their own control of power, while neglecting the vital democratic and constitutional issues related to building an independent Sudan. Among the most important constitutional issues are:
1) Forms of government which will achieve a just system of power sharing in Sudan between the various national and tribal components – forms which would lead to healthy and viable political practices.
2) Implementing plans for the sharing of wealth and economic development, and bringing an end to the unjust policies which have led to the neglect of the country’s underdeveloped areas in the South, West and East. Such plans must give immediate priority to areas of ethnic and social conflict. All this needs to be carried out in the context of a scientifically-planned economic project aimed at stopping deterioration in the surplus-producing areas of the economy, while at the same time not exhausting the center.
3) The introduction of democratic political practices that take into consideration the political realities of Sudan, including the relationship between religion and the state, and the complicated issue of Sudanese identity.
The National Islamic Front regime has played a major role in escalating the conflict in Darfur and transforming it into an enormous tragedy. This role is directly connected to the strategic plans of the NIF, which aims to build an Arab-Islamic entity in Darfur that extends throughout West Africa, in which Darfur will constitute the first line of defense for the Arab-Islamic state in Sudan – something which has long been the dream of the NIF. The goals of the NIF regime can be seen in its political practices as well as in its developmental plans.
The political practices include:
1) The arbitrary establishment of new administrative bodies, without consideration for existing conflicts over land ownership.
2) The fomenting of opposition against local administrative bodies who are opposed to the central authority, and the forced imposition of new administrations that support the central government.
3) The distribution of weapons, supplied by what the government calls the 'Mujahideen”[3] from southern Sudan for use in tribal conflicts.
4) Discrimination against and favoritism toward particular tribes in terms of disarmament procedures and weapons’ distribution. The situation has further deteriorated because of the atrocities committed by the 'Walis”[4], who have exploited historical tribal conflicts in order to realize political gains for the ruling party. This is often done by awarding a province or administrative area to a friendly tribe at the expense of other tribes.
5) Conflicts with neighboring countries and the utilization of tribal structures in areas of conflict to promote the flow of weapons and warriors. An example of this process is the government’s policy of soliciting the support of tribes in neighboring countries and, in return, granting their members Sudanese nationality.
6) Adoption of a clearly racist policy through direct involvement of regime leaders in the recruitment, financing and arming of the pro-government Janjaweed [5] thugs. These gangs have committed horrible atrocities against the Zurga including mass murders and rapes, the burning of houses and villages, and ethnic cleansing. The aim of these crimes is the expulsion of millions of Zurga from their very fertile homelands and the transfer of these lands to the ownership of the class [6] of big businessmen who are either part of the regime or loyal to it. All of these crimes have led to the intervention of the international community in attempt to fetter the hands of the culprits, as well as the building of a huge solidarity movement involving people from all over the world. In this regard, the Security Council has adopted many resolutions, including the submission of cases to the International Criminal Court aimed at prosecuting the Janjaweed leaders and those in the government responsible for these crimes.
The developmental aspect as a cause of the Darfur conflict
It is undoubtedly true that reversing the economic backwardness of the region is the basic solution for Darfur’s problems. At the same time, it is becoming more and more difficult to deceive the people of Darfur by repeating the same slogans about development programs while never successfully implementing them. The people of Darfur have suffered from the failure and collapse of a multitude of programs, as well as the massive corruption involved in them. These include the Mount Jabal Marra project; the Savanna project, the Khor Ramla and Sag Anneam projects; the closure of the Nyala tannery; the neglect of seasonal maintenance of clean water streams, an initially successful project that was technically and financially supported by the German state of Saxony; the abolition of mobile medical and veterinary clinics; the closure of schools and hospitals due to delays in the payment of salaries, and many other failures. Thus, there are at present no development projects in Darfur, combined with the total collapse of the social service sector.
It should be noted that the Darfurian tribes who possess the historical rights to the land have always been very generous in opening up these lands for development projects that will generate economic revenue to benefit the entire population of the region, whether nomads or farmers. Furthermore, despite the adverse natural conditions, Darfur still has the capacity to sustain all of its people and livestock. Since the October Revolution of 1964 [7], the issue of development has been a pressing priority, and countless feasibility studies and project assessments have been accumulated. The missing link remains the political will to make the decisions that are necessary to mobilize the human and financial resources required to actually implement these plans and projects.
The National Islamic Front believed that it could refashion the entire social fabric of the people of Darfur – their whole way of life and their cultural traditions - according to the socially-engineering designs of the “Islamic Project', but the project has exploded violently from within. It was an explosion that was clearly building well before the 1989 NIF coup.
The first indication of the Islamic Project’s failure was when two prominent parliamentarians, both from Darfur, resigned from the National Islamic Front bloc during the brief period of democracy from 1986 to 1989. The second indicator came after the Islamic Front’s June 30, 1989 coup, when a prominent leader of the Islamic Front, Daoud Yahya Bolad, a native of Darfur, organized an armed uprising in Darfur but was apprehended and executed by his former brothers in the Islamic Front.
The third indication was the increasing polarization within the Islamic Front into two tribal groups, the followers of the Hawk of Quraish, the ancient Islamic symbol of Sudan emblazoned on its coat of arms, and the African tribes who followed the Black Book manifesto, issued in the early 1990s.
Then the volcano fully erupted, creating a large rift in the leadership of the Islamic Front, and dividing it into a ruling National Congress Party and the opposition Peoples Congress Party, led by Dr. Hassan al-Turabi.
Perhaps the best assessment and summarization of the crisis of the 'Islamic Project' in Darfur was offered by one of the founders of the Islamic Front, Dr. Eltayeb Zein Alabdeen, when he wrote:
The security situation in Darfur is steadily deteriorating from bad to worse. Acts of armed robbery have occurred because of poverty, unemployment and drought. This then developed into a tribal conflict because of the bankrupt policies of some governors in the region who wanted to exploit historical tribal conflicts to achieve political profit for the ruling government party. The current situation marks the beginning of a civil war in the region, a war prompted by the political injustices which are due to the absence of development projects in the region and the lack of educational and health services, along with the economic and political isolation of the indigenous peoples of Darfur, which prevents them from holding positions of authority in their own homeland. (8)
The continuous marginalization of Darfur since Sudan’s independence in 1957, and its abandonment by the traditional political forces who have completely failed to fulfil the legitimate demands of the Darfurian people, along the criminal policies of the Islamic Front government, which are marked by violence and extreme repression, are all factors which have encouraged young people from the tribes in the region to organize and rebel against the status quo by waging armed resistance. Theirs is a struggle to achieve the long-denied rights of the Darfurian people and an equitable sharing of wealth and power within the framework of a united Sudan.
--From a paper submitted by the Sudanese Communist Party. [See part 2 of this paper by clicking here.]
Footnotes
[1]- The land of a particular clan or tribal group. [2]- The local name for the tribes of African origin. [3]- Holy fighters. [4]- Governors. [5] - A local word in Darfur which means a Satan mounting a horse, carrying a G3 Gun and then arousing terror and destructions. The government recruited the Janjaweed from some pro-government tribes, mostly Arabs, but also from mercenaries & criminals who had escaped from justice in the countries of the west of Africa. [6] - Our party calls this class 'The Islamic parasitic capitalist class'. [7] - The popular uprising that overthrew the military dictatorship during the period 1958 1964 in the Sudan. [8] Dr.Eltayeb Zein Alabdeen: 'Darfur and the Political solution' in Al Bayan Newspaper, the Emirates, 18/9/2002.
